Framework Essay to Edward Said’s Essay Example for Free

Framework Essay to Edward Said’s Essay In any part in the world, there is no place to be but home. Home is a place where we feel safe and take refuge. But how we’ll feel if this is taken away from us? The essay by Edward Said, â€Å"States†, narrates the story of about his country, Palestine, and the struggle of his country men. He also shares the passion for his homeland which we can relate to. â€Å"States† exemplify the experiences and perceptions of how important a home is to a common Palestinian. Our country is a big part of our self. As we are born, we are destined to become a part of it. It became part of our identity. Things that we grew up with meant something to us. We usually treasure things that became part of our lives. Even unconsciously, we take hold of it. Home brings us memories, memories that we want to hold on up to our last breath. It plays a big role to our development, as a child and as a person fully. Home is part of ourselves which became a foundation of who we are today. To be away from home makes us feel empty or incomplete in a sense. This is experienced by people who are exiled from their own homeland. Exiles are treated as aliens and feel shame to one’s pride. Exile is a miserable thing. Nothing can be so embarrassing than to be taken away from home. It saddens a person to feel a stranger to his own country. One is not only deprived of the social rights but as well as the freedom. As described in the essay of Edward Said an exile is referred as â€Å"present absentees† where to their homeland, they are vanished and as for the host country they are viewed as aliens. However, having troubles cannot stop a person from his will. In spite of the intense conflict between the Palestine-Israel, one cannot take away the momentum of an important occasion like wedding. Circumstances like these were illustrated in the text. A person in the middle of crisis stays positive and hopeful. Palestinians, which travel from time to time for because of occupation and safety, became used to these. One’s true happiness is in the state of thinking. He can stay happy despite of his terrible condition. Said also shares his experiences from his youth and what he knew from his country. One sad part also is the stability of the land, suppression from your own land. One is deprived of being free on his own country. Children cannot play outside without parents worrying their safety. To a place where he grew up and know to be his home became an odd place. I believe that home is very important in any living thing. It doesn’t only provide us shelter but is also a part of our personal development. It helps us build our confidence through the feeling of security. A home is like a mother to us which provides us what we need to sustain living. Our nourishment as a child is fed by the things that happen around us. These things shape the character of a person. Home builds a person’s character. Home is the environment which we live in and has an impact on our lives. To take something away from us bring us the feeling of being incomplete. We are already attached to it. Without the home that we used to be, somehow we feel lost. One feels the sense of belongingness on it. A person learns from his surrounding. We must know how to appreciate what we have considering we live in a democratic and secured country. Home is a place that nourished us when we are young. And as we became old, there is nowhere else we would want to go but home.

Myringotomy And Bilateral Ear Grommets Insertion General Anaesthesia Nursing Essay

Myringotomy And Bilateral Ear Grommets Insertion General Anaesthesia Nursing Essay I am a student anaesthetic practitioner with a clinical placement in an acute hospital. I will be reflecting on my personal experience with a 20 year old patient who underwent a Myringotomy and Bilateral Ear Grommets Insertion procedure wherein a local anaesthetic was used and had failed, and prompting the case to be done under general anaesthesia. The operation was deemed necessary by the consultant as the patient was diagnosed with recurrent Otitis Media with Effusion (OME), see Appendix A [on page 23], because it will eventually help to correct his hearing loss and prevent further deterioration as stated by Woolfson and McCafferty 1993. Following the NMC Code of Conduct (2008) on Confidentiality of patients information, I will refer to patient as Mr. B. I will be using the Gibbs Reflective Cycle which is shown in Appendix B as the framework of my reflection Jasper (2003). It will highlight how researching further led to a better understanding of surgery and anaesthetics and to know how to respond if the same situation happens again. Mr. B. had been admitted in the ward at noontime of the surgery. He was seen by the anaesthetist to carry out a preoperative assessment. According to the anaesthetist, he is generally fit for surgery and does not pose as an anaesthetic risk. The anaesthetist discussed with him about her plan to give him a general anaesthesia, but he asked the anaesthetist if the operation can be done without having a general anaesthetic because he prefers to remain awake. The consultant surgeon also came in and explained the surgery. He was allowed to undertake a local anaesthetic provided that he cooperate well and if the local anaesthetic is unsuccessful, an alternative anaesthetics will be used, that is a general anaesthesia. The surgeon and anaesthetist explained what he will experience with local anaesthetics like a burning sensation in his ears, including possibly a degree of pain. Any anaesthetic may arise complications and that other types of anaesthetic is not sufficient for the surgery and therefore needs to be changed to a general anaesthetic at any time (Box Hill Hosp. Dept. of Anaesthesia, 2001). A written consent was obtained by the surgeon from Mr. B. The Department of Health Guidelines (2007) on Consent states that Informed Consent ensures the patient has full knowledge of the procedure because it is fully explained to the patient by the surgeon. The patient is also given the time to ask any questions he may have and voice any concerns and honest answers must be provided. I was assigned in the ENT theatre for the afternoon session which has three booked cases. The operating department practitioner (ODP) and I did the necessary checks in the anaesthetic room and safely prepared the anaesthetic materials and equipment in preparation of the list (AAGBI 2004). I also checked the safe and correct functionality of the anaesthesia machine and refilled drugs in the anaesthetic cupboards. Shields and Werder (2002) said that adequate preparation of the anaesthetic equipment, resources and patient is essential to the provision of safe anaesthetic care. The team members gathered to initiate a preoperative briefing. During the briefing, the surgeon mentioned about the order of the list. Mr. B will be done last as he is a private case anyway. After finishing the first two cases, the ODP and I went to the waiting area of patients to fetch Mr. B. I introduced myself and checked his identity. Then I checked that all preoperative preparations were done and documented. The consent form was confirmed to him that it was his signature and dated. As the patient was having a Myringotomy and Bilateral Ear Grommets Insertion, the site of his procedure was not marked. For most procedure, this is an important check. The National Patient Safety Alert NPSA (2005) recommend that by marking the site for the operation with an arrow using a permanent marker will assist in reducing the incidents of wrong site surgery being performed. I also checked him for any allergies, presence of any metalwork, prosthetic aids in his body, contact lenses, crowns and dentures and asked if he has any other significant surgery or illness. Then I accompanied him to the operating room and made him lay down comfortably. While conversing with him, I placed on the external non-invasive monitors such as the blood pressure, ECG and pulse oximeter. I tried to maintain a quiet and supportive environment. I sat beside him and continued to communicate with him as he looked anxious. Kumar (2 000) said that patients are apprehensive about what will happen and the anaesthetic practitioner needs to monitor patients anxiety level throughout the surgical procedure. Meanwhile, the circulating nurse initiated the Time Out check which is carried out in every operation to enhance a safe surgery (World Health Organisation Guidelines for Safe Surgery, 2008). The surgeon applied the local anaesthetic drug Ametop gel 4% onto Mr. Bs ears. Woolfson and McCafferty (1993) suggest that it should be instilled into the external ear canal using a soft, intravenous cannula and a 5ml syringe and performed under a microscope to ensure immediate contact of the gel with the entire ear drums and that the ear canal was filled and the depth of the gel provides self occlusion. According to the BNF (2010) Ametop is a topical local anaesthetic in gel form which contains Tetracaine base 40 mgs. believed to act by blocking nerve conduction mainly by inhibiting sodium ion flux across the axon membrane. The ester type caine anaesthetics are rapidly metabolised in blood mainly by plasma pseudocholinesterase. A slight erythema local skin reaction will be usually seen at the site of the application and as a result of the pharamacological action of tetracaine dilating the capillary vessels.This helps in delineating the anaesthetised area as explained by the National Library of Guidelines (2007). Adequate anaesthesia can usually be achieved following 30-60 minutes application time and anaesthesia is maintained for 4 to 6 hours in most patients after a single application. We waited only for about 30 minutes to anaesthetise his ears. While waiting, Mr. B became anxious as he was seen perspiring a lot. Everyone reassured him. The surgeon began cleaning and draping the area. Working with an operating microscope, the surgeon started to suction and made a small incision in his eardrum. Mr. B reacted to the pain but I encouraged him to keep still. The surgeon continued to suction the fluid present in the middle ear but Mr. B kept on moving his head because the pain was more intense. A tiny grommet was to be inserted into his surgical aperture but he refused as he cannot bear the intense pain. The surgeon stopped and asked the patient not to move if he wanted the operation to continue or if he cannot tolerate, he will be put to sleep instead. Mr. B and the whole team proceeded further as consented. The anaesthetist cannulated Mr. B. using a gauge 18 large bore venflon secured with a transparent and semi permeable dressing connected to a litre of Hartmanns solution which has been labelled and checked by the anaesthetist and the ODP as per NHS protocol for intravenous infusion, AfPP (2007). Clarke and Jones (1998) describes that a Hartmanns or sodium lactate or lactated ringers is a crystalloid type of intravenous fluid that will cross a semipermeable membrane, thus allowing movement of electrolytes to correct any imbalance. It contains calcium, chloride and lactate similar in composition to extracellular fluid as a balanced salt solution. The anaesthetist started the induction and an I-gel airway (see appendix C) was inserted. The surgery was resumed and carried out without any problems. Mr. B. was fully recovered and transferred back to the ward without complications. I felt disappointed because the result of this experience was clearly contrary to initial expectations. A minor operation like this can be done under local anaesthetics and is a quick procedure. It could have finished if only the patient cooperated well. Although this experience was frustrating for the patient as he requested to be awake during the procedure, still it went well and the treatment for a possible hearing loss and deterioration was done for him. The duties and responsibilities expected from me as an anaesthetic theatre practitioner were performed according to the policies and procedures of my clinical placement. The whole team cooperated well and performed their job accordingly. I have also found out a controversial issue regarding the Ametop gel which has aroused my doubt. Netdoctor (2004) points out that Ametop is a topical anaesthetic for dermal analgesia which must not to be applied to broken skin, mucous membrane or to the eyes or ears. Tetracaine gel could be ototoxic like other local anaesthetics and should not be introduced to the middle ear or use in procedures which might involve penetration into the middle ear. Therefore, Mr. B. might be at risk for ototoxicity. In addition to that, the local anaesthetic did not fail but it is because the surgeon did not wait longer enough until Mr. B was pain free before starting the surgery. A proper consent was secured earlier from him, thus, saved the time in securing a fresh consent. Moreover, it saved NHS resources akin to if the list was cancelled and rescheduled and along with the unsatisfactory hospital experience of Mr. B. The surgery could have been done quickly and safely under a most and effective local anaesthetic rather than topical and waiting for a clinically acceptable anaesthesia before commencing the surgery. I suggest that next time this event occurs again, I would tell the whole team in the preoperative briefing, to give ample time for the anaesthesia to take effect before we can start the surgery. I would also write an incident report so that a proper evaluation could be done and errors will be omitted in the future for the safety of the patient.

A visit of charity Essays -- essays research papers

A Visit of Charity In the short story of "A Visit of Charity" by Eudora Welty, a fourteen-year-old girl visits two women in a home for the elderly to bring them a plant and to earn points for Campfire Girls. Welty implies through this story that neither the society that supports the home nor the girl, Marian, knows the meaning of the word "charity." Websterà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s New World College Dictionary defines "charity" as "the love of man for his fellow men: an act of good will or affection." But instead of love, good will, and affection, self-interest, insensitivity, and dehumanization prevail in this story. Welty's description of the setting and her portrayal of Marian dramatize the theme that people's selfishness and insensitivity can blind them to the humanity and needs of others. Many features of the setting, a winter's day at a home for elderly women, suggest coldness, neglect, and dehumanization. Instead of evergreens or other vegetation that might lend softness or beauty to the place, the city has landscaped it with "prickly dark shrubs." Behind the shrubs the whitewashed walls of the Old Ladies' Home reflect "the winter sunlight like a block of ice." Welty also implies that the cold appearance of the nurse is due to the coolness in the building as well as to the stark, impersonal, white uniform she is wearing. Perhaps the clearest evidence of dehumanization is the small, crowded rooms, each inhabited by two older wom...

Dickinsons The Spider holds a Silver Ball Essay -- Dickinson analysis

Dickinson's The Spider holds a Silver Ball Paradox baffles and inspires thinkers because it wipes out the greatest of conclusions, puts us intimately in touch with the very nature of inexplicable feeling, both simultaneously implodes and explodes the mind, and of course induces a certain sensation, as Dickinson puts it, â€Å"as if the top of my head were taken off.† It seems to me that in art this is the fix we desire, where sensation obliterates logic. Dickinson's poetry is one of the few places I have so far found the paradoxic tendency so profoundly expressed. Therefore, I will take up the notion of paradoxic tension created by Dickinson, her method of dealing with the inner and the outer, expansion and contraction, the creation and destruction of boundary, and the mysterious ways in which these things interact, especially through the symbol of the spider. In â€Å"The Spider holds a Silver Ball,† the spider, as creator, as weaver, contains â€Å"In unperceived Hands† (2) a glimmering medium of magic. From this silver ball, creation spins outward. The spider, viewed as poet, weaves outward from the center of inspiration. The hands are both somehow there and not there as they delicately â€Å"unwind† this intangeble yet â€Å"Silver† mass. The description of the invisible in physical terms characterizes one method by which Dickinson weaves paradox. The idea of the spider â€Å"dancing† portrays an outward movement, but Dickinson with a few words suddenly makes this action inward and private: â€Å"dancing softly to Himself† (3). The first stanza confirms the portrait of an â€Å"unperceived† artist performing her art outwardly and we find a sense of what art means to Dickinson—an outward gesture which originates in some unknown, private and inner pl... ...rtist accomplishes informing herself of the inexplicable nature of the mind through the â€Å"strategy† of â€Å"physiognomy† (8-9) or revealing the inner aspects outwardly. Dickinson reveals the intangible through physical means; her language uses hard images such as the spider and the silver ball to outwardly communicate the boundless capacity of inner emotion and feeling. In the process she must create boundary, it is the only way to explain the unexplainable feelings with which the mind occupies itself; however, her next move is to destroy the very boundaries that she creates, showing just where and how these feelings originate, bringing them back. Physiognomy is clearly the Dickinson strategy, and it is that last line of â€Å"A Spider sewed at Night† that Dickinson stands up and proclaims, I am the spider and the spider is me and we are both everything and nothing—so there. Dickinson's The Spider holds a Silver Ball Essay -- Dickinson analysis Dickinson's The Spider holds a Silver Ball Paradox baffles and inspires thinkers because it wipes out the greatest of conclusions, puts us intimately in touch with the very nature of inexplicable feeling, both simultaneously implodes and explodes the mind, and of course induces a certain sensation, as Dickinson puts it, â€Å"as if the top of my head were taken off.† It seems to me that in art this is the fix we desire, where sensation obliterates logic. Dickinson's poetry is one of the few places I have so far found the paradoxic tendency so profoundly expressed. Therefore, I will take up the notion of paradoxic tension created by Dickinson, her method of dealing with the inner and the outer, expansion and contraction, the creation and destruction of boundary, and the mysterious ways in which these things interact, especially through the symbol of the spider. In â€Å"The Spider holds a Silver Ball,† the spider, as creator, as weaver, contains â€Å"In unperceived Hands† (2) a glimmering medium of magic. From this silver ball, creation spins outward. The spider, viewed as poet, weaves outward from the center of inspiration. The hands are both somehow there and not there as they delicately â€Å"unwind† this intangeble yet â€Å"Silver† mass. The description of the invisible in physical terms characterizes one method by which Dickinson weaves paradox. The idea of the spider â€Å"dancing† portrays an outward movement, but Dickinson with a few words suddenly makes this action inward and private: â€Å"dancing softly to Himself† (3). The first stanza confirms the portrait of an â€Å"unperceived† artist performing her art outwardly and we find a sense of what art means to Dickinson—an outward gesture which originates in some unknown, private and inner pl... ...rtist accomplishes informing herself of the inexplicable nature of the mind through the â€Å"strategy† of â€Å"physiognomy† (8-9) or revealing the inner aspects outwardly. Dickinson reveals the intangible through physical means; her language uses hard images such as the spider and the silver ball to outwardly communicate the boundless capacity of inner emotion and feeling. In the process she must create boundary, it is the only way to explain the unexplainable feelings with which the mind occupies itself; however, her next move is to destroy the very boundaries that she creates, showing just where and how these feelings originate, bringing them back. Physiognomy is clearly the Dickinson strategy, and it is that last line of â€Å"A Spider sewed at Night† that Dickinson stands up and proclaims, I am the spider and the spider is me and we are both everything and nothing—so there.

Computer Systems Analyst :: essays research papers fc

Computer Systems Analyst   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  I push the button, I hear a noise, the screen comes alive. My computer loads up and starts to process. I see the start screen for Windows 95, and I type in my password. Even though this takes time, I know that I will be able to do whatever I want to do without any trouble, without any glitches, without any questions. My computer is now easier to use and more user friendly because computer systems analysts have worked out the problems that many computer systems still have.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  It appears to me that a career choice needs to contain a number of different features. The first being: Will this area of interest mentally stimulate me as well as challenge me? The second being: Is there a way of making a living in these areas of interest? And finally: Do I enjoy the different activities within this area of interest? From the first day that I started my first computer, I have grasped the concepts quickly and with ease. But the computer as well as I will never stop growing. I have introduced myself to all topics of word processing to surfing the web. After reviewing a number of resources, I have noticed a relatively high demand for technologically integrated hardware and software positions available with companies that wish to compete with the demand for â€Å"networking†. (â€Å"Computer Scientists† 95) This leads me to believe that future employment prospects will be high and of high quality pay within the next eight to ten years. The past, present, and future have and will see the computer. Since I have seen the computer, I have enjoyed the challenges and countless opportunities to gain in life from this machine. From school projects to games; from the Internet to programming languages; I have and always will feel like that little kid in the candy store.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Job Description   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  A Computer Systems Analyst decides how data are collected, prepared for computers, processed, stored, and made available for users. (â€Å"Computer Systems† COIN 1) The main achievement as a systems analyst is to improve the efficiency or create a whole new computer system that proves to be more efficient for a contracting company. When on an assignment, the analyst must meet a deadline. While striving for a deadline, he must create and comprehend many sources of information for the presentation. He must review the systems capabilities, workflow, and scheduling limitations (â€Å"Systems Analyst† 44), to determine if certain parts of the system must be modified for a new program.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  First, a computer programmer writes a program that he thinks will be

Hasidism

Heschel and Hasidic Judaism Glenn Dynner Abraham Joshua Heschel glorifies Eastern European rabbinic culture as an advanced, pious sect of Judaism, offering equality to men and women, an easily comprehensible and fair hierarchy of religious power, purity of mind and spirit, and a straightforward and simple path to heaven. Heschel; American rabbi, and leading Jewish theologian and philosopher, describes Hasidic Judaism as a near perfect religious society.Heschel references many Jewish ideologies that assist in proving the superiority of Hasidic Judaism to various other religions; including dissimilar sects of Judaism. Though Heschel's argument is strong and he makes many valid points supporting the superiority of the Hasidim, such as the increased vivacity of Jewish life, there exists numerous instances in which he glosses over an ugly, hidden reality of Hasidic life in order to produce a more pristine picture of Hasidic existence.What Heschel fails to mention in his essay, are the num erous power struggles endured by Hasidic leaders, false claims of messianic power, clear evidence of sexism, and an institution that includes an obscure hierarchy that imparts confusion and uncertainty to both leaders of Hasidism and followers alike. Scholars; Jacob Frank, Baal Shem Tov and Solomon Maimon offer new insight, and dissimilar views on the merits of Hasidism in Eastern European culture.Like the distinguished Christian reformists known as the Puritans; the Jewish sect of Hasidism transpired from the dissatisfaction of a small minority who sought to improve the individual's religious experience by assuming more stringent methods of observations and religious rituals and practices. Eighteenth century Poland served as the venue for this particular religious revitalization. The Hasid recognized strict, relatively inflexible practices that focused even the most mundane, routine chore around the worship of the Jewish God. Hasidism; the plural of Hasid derives from the verb â₠¬Å"Hasid† meaning pious or evote. Unlike previous sect of Judaism who's followers worshipped God only in the vicinity of a temple on Friday nights, the Hasid show devotion to God through everyday actions and practices. In his essay; East European Jews In Two Worlds: Studies From the Yivo Annual, Heschel depicts how the Hasid revitalize Judaism through the democratization of Jewish study and worship, a renewed sense of proximity to deity, the introduction of God into everyday activity, a consciousness of the significance of personal actions, and a new sense of self importance and personal responsibility to God.Hasidic Judaism appeals mainly to Jews who feel the conventional form of religious worship and study has become stale and unsentimental. Many of the Hasid grew to resent the tired hierarchal religious structure found in Jewish communities. Hasidism was able to provide the discontent with a renewed feeling of individual significance and proximity to God. The Hasid succeede d in democratizing the study and worship of God, expelling the tired patriarchal rule of worship, and re-instating an egalitarianism society in which each individual experienced a personal relationship with God.In his eulogy on Jewish life in Eastern Europe, Abraham Joshua Heschel discusses the numerous developments made by Rashi, and the Hasid who's ambition it was to revitalize Jewish religious, and everyday life. By combining both everyday chores, and religious worship, the Hasid were able to establish a way of life that was constantly illuminated by God's love and glory. Heschel comments on the infusion of religious piety into everyday life. He explains how worship and religious studies evolved from mundane weekly choirs, to an outlet in which life maintained vigor and meaning. The pattern of life was not limited to religious activities. Not only what is to be done on the Sabbath, but also what is to be done in the course of the week, has a definite form. The pattern of prescrib es the kinds of food to be eaten on certain days, the manner of putting on and off the shoes, the deportment in the street. † (Heschel, 6). This renewed sense of proximity to deity made Jewish worship much more than a weekly, mechanized due to be paid to God. Heschel explains how Hasidic Judaism re-energized Jewish spirituality and conviction. Hassidim†, he explains, â€Å"brought down heaven upon the earth. They (The Hasid) banished melancholy from the soul and uncovered the great fortune of being a Jew. Jewishness meant rebirth. † (Heschel, 13). Worship was no longer realized through a step-by-step, formal document; worship was realized with each beat of the believer's heart. The Sabbath, like worship, was no longer confined by days of the week, nor by the walls of the synagogue. Hasidism introduced a new phase of modernity and democratization into the Jewish religion.Knowledge became a right of the male masses; wealth no longer determined who had the privilege to study the Torah. Heschel describes this transformation in his eulogy on Jewish life in Eastern Europe; â€Å"Scholarship†, he says, â€Å"ceased to be the monopoly of the few, and became widely disseminated. † (Heschel, 7). Hasidic Judaism breathed into the religion a new consciousness of the significance that individual deeds and actions had not only on the self, but also the general well being of the Jewish population.The common folk developed a more refined awareness of the actions and beliefs necessary to adapt in order to restore Judaism to its formal glory. For the Hasidim the Kabbalah reinforced a new awareness of their individual deeds, it could even make â€Å"every Jew believe himself somewhat of a Messiah†. (Heschel, 13). Every Jew had the opportunity to find happiness and fulfillment through faith and study. This mentality produced a new sense of self-importance and responsibility to God. Man was born with one mission; to prefect the world by rese mbling the scattered Sparks of Holiness in the world.Heschel describes the charge each individual Hassidim hopes to assist; â€Å"The send of man's life†, he says, â€Å"lies in his perfecting the world. He has to distinguish, gather, and redeem the Sparks of Holiness scattered throughout the darkness of the world. † (Heschel, 13). Life for the Hasidim was a mission that God entrusted to each individual. Solomon Maimon; Jewish scholar of the Talmud, and tutor of the young, disputes that Hasidism democratized scholarship. Maimon goes so far as to call religious teachers â€Å"tyrants†.Maimon’s description of these oppressive teachers discredits Heschel’s claim that the Hasid provided religious tolerance and acceptance. Maimon continues to describe an environment that did not provide religious stimulation, but instead suppressed individual thought and progress. Along with the many changes of the fifteenth century, Gutenberg’s printing press wa s instrumental in spreading Hasidism. This new technology allowed for the spread the Hasid’s literature, captivating new audiences, wherever they spread.Hasidic Judaism has not gone without it's fair share of dispute and controversy; often from leaders of exterior Judaic sects. Of these disputes, three men; Baal Shem Tov, Sabbatai Sevi, and Jacob Frank, have been most instrumental in challenging the legitimacy of Hasidism. Jacob Frank; a self-declared messiah and well-known religious authority, is often considered to be the founder of the â€Å"anti- Talmudists†. He rejects the Talmud in recognition of the â€Å"Zohar†, a doctrine that allowed Christianity and Judaism to coexist side-by-side.Frank encouraged his followers to seek out â€Å"heretics† and expose them as enemies of the Zohar. Though Frank was able to fuse Christianity and Judaism by referring to himself as an embodiment of one of the three Christian divinities, his teachings and beliefs were far from perfect. Though traditional Jewry was far from perfect, it is unclear whether any of Frank’s so called â€Å"improvements†, were beneficial to the Judaism. Jacob Frank spread his religion by taking advantage of the curiosity Jews had about the Christian sect.Through his work, Frank was able to create a bridge connecting the old religion with the new. Though his followers were looking for a revived, democratic religion that valued truth, and certainty, what many Frankists found were a series of confusing, somewhat irrational claims against the Talmud and the Torah. Frankism was simply to radical, to be accepted by the masses without significant criticism. When many of these dishearten Jews scrutinized Frankism, they found further confusion, bizarre insinuations, and ultimately a man whose main goal was self-proclaimed fame.In hindsight, Frank appears to have little attachment to Judaism, many, myself included, believe that he used Judaism to promote his own re putation and wealth. At the peak of his popularity, Frank was imprisoned and chooses to convert to Christianity, rather then remain loyal to his own teachings. Frankism immediately lost the majority of its followers, many receding to their initial religion. Another Messianic movement, Sabbateanism, founded by Sabbatai Sevi, another self-proclaimed messiah, emerged in the year 1665. Sabbateanism, like Frankish called for a revitalization of Judaic-religio spirit.Sabbateanist claimed that Messianic times had/ become and persuaded followers to disregard the commandments explained in the Torah; calling them unnecessary, and pre-messianic. Sabbateanist engaged in â€Å"sinful† behavior such as polygamy and breaking the Sabbath in order to prove that messianic times had come. These activities general leant to increases upheaval and unrest. Temptations such as these disprove that Heschel's belief that Hasidic Judaism is indeed a perfect institution. It is arguable that it was the di scontentment of the Hasid that allowed these different sects of Judaism to arise.Bal Shem Tov; the alleged founder of Hasidic Judaism, warns against the human tendency to doubt and question, The Baal Shem Tov cautioned the Hasidim: â€Å"Every time you experience a worry or doubt about how God is running the world- that's Amalek launching an attack against your soul. We must wipe Amalek out of our hearts whenever- and whenever- he attacks so that we cannot serve God with complete joy. † The Bal Shem Tov's warning suggests that the Hasidic Judaic community has within its people those whose belief is not entirely inflexible.Religious phenomenons such as these disprove Heschel belief in this type of peaceful religious community. In his writings, Heschel’s teachings lend to the impression that the Jewish Rabbinic hierarchy found in Jewish communities was dignified, distinguished and without flaw. This hierarchy; often referred to as the â€Å"Kahal†, is far from per fect. A diagram showing the hierarchy of the Judaic powers demonstrates that a Rabbi’s power was only authentic in his own jurisdiction (the Jewish community), and that local powers in the government could easily censure or nullify any of the Rabbi’s decrees.The Kahal demonstrates that while the Rabbi’s possessed some power, most of it was symbolic, and susceptible to Gentile rule. Though Hasidism did enjoy mass popularization and followings, the religion itself is far from perfection. Like most religious facts, the Hasid experience significant doubt, internal struggle, religious hypocrisy, and many other imperfections that keep Hasidism from reaching any kind of perfection. Though these faults did exist, Hasidism is undoubtedly accredited with the revitalization of Judaism faith and spirituality.

Ecosystems: Ecological Succession and Climatic Climax

Ecosystems: Change and Challenge The Structure of Ecosystems Ecosystem: a dynamic, stable system characterised by the interaction of plants and animals with each other and with the non-living components of the environment The components of an ecosystem are categorised as either biotic and abiotic Biotic means the living environment, components include: i). Vegetation (living and decomposing) ii).Mammals, insects, birds and microorganisms Biomass-the mass of material in the bodies of animals and plants (total mass of living matter) Abiotic means the non-living, chemical and physical components of the ecosystem and includes: i). Climate- in particular the seasonal pattern of temperature and precipitation ii). Soil characteristics iii). Underlying parent rock iv). Relief of the land v). Drainage characteristicsEcosystems are open systems because energy and living matter can both enter and leave the system: * Inputs-Energy from the sun, which drives photosynthesis-enabling the plants to grow, water transported into the ecosystem from precipitation and animals that arrive from elsewhere * Outputs-nutrients are transferred out of the system by: animals can physically move out, water can leave through evapotranspiration, groundwater flow and throughflow * Flows-nutrients can be transferred from one store to another e. g. apillary uptake * Stores- stores of nutrients: vegetation, plant litter and soils Energy Flows and nutrient cycling Energy flows- is the flow of energy through a food chain * Energy flows flow through an ecosystem from one stage to another. * Through photosynthesis plants are able to capture light energy from the sun to make carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and water to grow and increase their biomass * Within all ecosystems, nutrients are required for plant growth and are recycled from one store to another e. g. leaves fall from tree-> when they decompose nutrients are returned to the soilGersmehl diagram- shows the cycling of nutrients within the m ain stores of biome * Circles of proportionate size represent the stores of nutrients with the biomass, litter and soil * Nutrient transfers, inputs and outputs are represented by arrows of varying thickness Inputs- include nutrients(carbon and nitrogen) and minerals(from weathered parent rock) Outputs-loss of nutrients from the soil by; leaching and surface runoff Flows-leaf fall from biomass to litter, decomposition of litter, flow of nutrients to soil, uptake of nutrients by plants and treesThe movement of energy up the trophic levels shows the food chain as each trophic level occupies a different position. However food chains, in reality, are often more complicated than this. Some species can occupy more than one position in every food web – may be prey to more than one animal etc. Nutrient cycles in an ecosystem take place between the biotic and abiotic components of the ecosystem. This can be shown through the Gersmehl diagram. * Nutrients have three stores – the soil, litter and biomass. Nutrients are transferred through the three stores through fall of dead tissue, absorption through plant roots and decomposition etc. Inputs of nutrients include precipitation and the weathering of parent rock Outputs include loss from runoff and leaching Flows include leaf fall (from the biomass to the litter), decomposition of litter(flow of nutrients to the soil) Trophic levels, food chains and webs Energy transfer within an ecosystem, represented by a pyramid diagram * At each trophic level, some energy is available as food for the next level * Each level decreases in size, 90% of energy lost through life rocesses-respiration, movement and excretion * Only 10% available as food, number of living organisms decreases as trophic levels increase Producers/autotrophs- first layer, produce their own food through photosynthesis(green plants) Primary consumers-eat the producers(herbivores) Secondary consumers-consume the herbivores(carnivores) Tertiary consume rs-top predators that eat secondary consumers Detrivores and decomposers operate at each trophic level: i). Detrivore-feeds on dead material or waste products ii).Decomposer-an organism that breaks down dead plants, animals and waste matter e. g. fungi and bacteria * There are normally 4 links in a food chain, each link feeds on and obtains energy from the previous link and is consumed by and provides energy for the proceeding link * There are a large number of food chains that operate in ecosystems, it is also made even more complicated as animals have varied diets, this can be shown in a food web Ecosystems in the British Isles Over Time Succession and Climax Succession-a series of changes that take place in the plant community over timeClimatic climax-the final stage of the plant succession, where the vegetation is in balance with the environmental conditions. Providing the environmental conditions remain unchanged there will be no change in the vegetation once the stage is reach ed * If allowed to continue undisturbed , the succession will reach its climatic climax- where the plant species live in perfect balance with the current environmental conditions * Climate is the major influence of vegetation on a global scale * On a local scale-drainage, geology and relief affect plant growthThere are two basic types of succession: 1. Primary succession-occurs on surfaces that have had no previous vegetation There are two main types of primary succession: * Xeroseres are formed on dry land, this group can be divided into lithoseres on bare rock and psammoseres on sand dunes * Hydroseres are formed in water, haloseres in salt water and hydroseres in fresh water 2. Secondary succession occurs on land that was formerly vegetated but has undergone a loss of vegetation E. g. Deforestation Development of a successionAs the succession develops it passes through a series of stages called seres(individual stages in the plant succession) where the processes of invasion, colo nisation, competition, domination and decline operate to influence the composition of the vegetation i). Plants first invade bare ground through the processes of dispersal and migration ii). Pioneer species are adapted to surviving harsh conditions (e. g. long-rooted salt-tolerant marram grass), they compete for available space, light, water and nutrients, when they die they help modify the environment by adding organic matter iii).The addition of organic matter to the developing soil improves its structure and water retention qualities iv). A period of relative stability is eventually reached where the vegetation has reached its climax, the climax is dominated by the tallest species v). The saturation point has been reached with all potential niches occupied- climatic climax community, where the natural vegetation has reached a stable balance with the climate and soils of the area Polyclimax theory- the theory that local factors (drainage, geology, relief and microclimates) can cre ate variations in the climatic climax communityPlagioclimax- the plant community that exists when human interference prevents the climatic climax being reached Lithosere Is a succession that begins life on newly exposed rock surface e. g. eruption of a volcano i). The bare rock is initially colonised by bacteria and algae ii). The pioneers begin to colonise, starting with lichens, they begin to break down the rock and assist water retention iii). As water retention improves, mosses begin to grow, water retention improves and weathering to produce the beginning of a soil where advanced plants can grow iv).Ferns, herbs and flowering plants appear and die back, bacteria converts their remains into humus, helps to recycle nutrients and improve soil fertility v). Shrubs start to grow vi). Pioneer trees become established, normally fast growing e. g. willow, birch vii). Slower growing tree species begin to develop (e. g. ash and oak), they are the dominants of the climatic climax communit y- termperate deciduous woodland Hydrosere A hydrosere develops as follows: i). In a freshwater environment, submerged aquatics are the first plants to develop, they help to trap sediment which enables other species to move in i). The next seral stage is the growth of reed beds and swamp conditions iii). Colonisation by alder and fern begins, they further modify the environmental conditions, improving drainage and mineral content of the immature soil, allowing the entry of willow and ash iv). The climatic climax vegetation of deciduous oak or beech woodland is reached, throughout the succession there are progressive changes to the soil conditions, ground-level microclimate and animal activity Temperate Deciduous WoodlandA biome is a global-scale ecosystem and is a naturally occurring organic community of plants and animals in the climatic climax stage of succession * Tropical rainforests and temperate deciduous woodland are both examples of high energy biomes * Low energy biomes are the tundra in the high latitudes and the hot deserts in the low latitudes, the vegetation is scarce and net primary productivity is low * Temperate deciduous woodland is a high energy biome which has a relatively high productivity. It is found in id latitudes on the borders of continents where there is adequate moisture. Climate: * Temperature ranges from 5 – 17 in Winter and Summer * 500-2,000mm of rain per year, varies seasonally * Low pressure systems * Westerly winds Vegetation: * Broadleaved deciduous trees are the dominant species, oak are the tallest * Trees develop large crowns and broad but thin leaves * Shed their leaves in the winter, reduces transpiration when less water is available * Net primary production-1,200g dry organic matter per M? er year * Most woodlands show some stratification * Below the canopy is the shrub layer * Just above the forest floor is the herb layer * Epiphytes e. g. lichens and mosses grow on the trunks and branches of trees * A thick la yer of leaf litter is readily broken down by soil microbes and animals Soil: * Brown Earth soil 1. 5m deep * Leaf litter makes the soil more fertile in Autumn * Well mixed with decomposers so it becomes fertile quickly * Leaching occurs when there is snowmelt or intense rain, which is not uncommon Arresting factorsPlant successions can be stopped from reaching climatic climax or deflected to a different climax, by human interference The resulting vegetation is called a plagioclimax, this can be caused by: * deforestation or afforestation * animal grazing or trampling * fire clearance A secondary succession is one that develops on land that has previously been vegetated The stages of secondary succession may be more rapid than those of primary succession because organic matter is already present in the soil, the pioneer stage may be short or absent- climatic climax is reached in a much shorter timePlagioclimax: heather moorland 1. As the soils deteriorated without the deciduous veget ation, hardy plants such as heather come to dominate the uplands. 2. Sheep grazing became the major form of agriculture and the sheep prevented the regeneration of climax woodland by destroying young saplings 3. Many of these uplands have been controlled by managed burning to encourage new heather shoots 4. Burning has eliminated the less fire-resistant species, leading to the dominance of heather 5.One of the aims of burning heather is to ensure as much as possible of the available nutrient is conserved in the ecosystem 6. Burnt on average every 15 years, If the time elapses more then there is too much woody tissue and nutrients are lost in smoke Tropical biomes In a tropical rainforest biome due to the constant high temperature and rainfall, vegetation grows more quickly, large amounts of net primary production Biodiversity- the variety of species within an ecosystem Leaching-soluble bases are removed from a soil by downward-percolating water in environments where precipitation ex ceeds evaporationNet primary production-the amount of energy fixed in photosynthesis minus the energy lost by respiration in plants The tropical equatorial rainforest biome The tropical rainforest biomes are between latitudes 10Â °N and 10Â °S of the equator Climate * The equatorial climate has little variation, temperatures remain high throughout the year * High diurnal temperature range, high during day and low during the night- due to no insulating clouds to keep the heat in * Annual precipitation is high, often in excess of 2000mm, rain falls all ear round at the equator because of the inter-tropical convergence zone dominates the atmospheric conditions Evapotranspiration is rapid, due to sun heats the humid forest * low pressure conditions allow air to be rapidly uplifted * As the air rises it cools and water vapour condenses into clouds, the clouds continue to build into the afternoon- leading to heavy rain and thunder, returning the previously uplifted moisture back to grou nd levelHumidity is high throughout the year, continuous evapotranspiration adds water vapour to the air On the forest floor there is little breeze as the trade winds converge here Soils Underlying soil will have developed naturally over a long period of time and be in balance with its environment, this is known as zonal soil The zonal soil associated with the tropical rainforest is a latosolyh Characteristic features * A latosol can be more than 40m deep The constant hot wet climate provides perfect conditions for chemical weathering of the bedrock * Ferrallitisation is the process where bedrock is broken down by chemical weathering into clay minerals and sesquioxides * Red colour due to the presence of iron and aluminium minerals * As there is a moisture surplus in the equatorial climate(rainfall exceeds evapotranspiration), there is a downward movement of water through the soil * Silica materials are washed out of the A horizon and transported downwards by water by a process call ed leaching * Iron and aluminium compounds are less soluble and are left behind * The latosol is nutrient poor, plant uptake of nutrients is roughly equal to the input from decomposed litter * Soil moisture utilisation occurs throughout this period, as evaporation and transpiration exceed precipitation Vegetation Rainforests are the most diverse and productive biome, also the most fragile The vegetation is in harmony with its environment and is a climatic climax community where the dominant species are the hardwood trees * The net primary production of the rainforest is 2,200g M? yr the figure is high because the growing season lasts all year and the litter is rapidly decomposed, replacing nutrients taken up by the vegetation * There can be up to 300 species of trees in every Km? * The forest has a layered appearance, with the tallest trees(emergent's), standing up to 45m, above the canopy, the canopy absorbs most of the sunlight and intercepts most of the precipitation * When a tre e dies it brings down others as it falls, new trees grow quickly taking advantage of the light, it decomposes quickly assisted by detrivores and the hot and humid conditions * Fungi that grows on trees and has an important role in decomposing litterThe vegetation has developed and adapted to physical conditions of the rainforest: * The trees grow rapidly, the leaves at the tops of the trees absorb light and photosynthesise, the bark is thin as the trees don't need protection from harsh winter conditions * The top layer of soil contains the minerals the trees need, there is also an abundant supply of water, roots do not need to be deep e. g. buttress roots, also help to stabilise the trees * The leaves have adapted to the regular heavy rainfall by developing drip-trips, which allows excess water to be easily shed, the leaves are also thick and leathery to withstand strong sunlight and reduces the loss of water from the plant * Epiphytes grow on the trees, as the forest floor is dark * Rainforests form the habitat for a huge number of species The effects of human activity on plant succession Deforestation is the deliberate clearance of woodland by cutting, burning or the application of a defoliant * Climatic climax vegetation has been destroyed, this has resulted in both secondary succession and plagioclimax * The vegetation that replaces the original rainforest tends to be smaller in height and less diverse, with a reduction in the general biomass Causes of deforestation * Demand for hardwood, e. g. teak, its demand for building and furniture is increasing * Many developing countries rely on export earnings from timber to help pay their debts and finance major development projects * To provide land for rubber plantations, cattle ranches for beef farming, soya plantations, mining, roads and railways * Population pressure has also led to an increase in the clearance of rainforests Impacts of deforestation * As habitats shrink, plant species become endangered and the food chain within the forest is disrupted * Some animal species are threatened by extinction The vegetation protects the latosol soils from the regular heavy tropical downpours * Once the trees are removed the topsoil is open to erosion and to leaching of nutrients and minerals * Runoff causes sediment to block river channels and increases flooding * The microclimate of the forest is disturbed by deforestation-the daily water cycle of rapid evapotranspiration followed by afternoon precipitation cannot occur, there is less cloud cover and a greater temperature range * The use of burning leads to local air pollution and contributes to climate change7 * Economic benefits in terms of income from mining, farming and exports from hardwood * Culture of the indigenous people is destroyed and they may be forced to move from their land People are one of the arresting factors that interfere with plants succession. They can often stop a plant succession from growing and then when this is ma intained it is known as a plagioclimax. Sheep grazing on moorland is an example. A secondary succession is a plant succession that takes place on land that has already been colonised.Secondary succession can follow a natural disaster such as a volcanic eruption or a period of human intervention such as colonising a former quarry site. Much of the British Isles was covered in deciduous woodland with the climax species being either Oak or Ash depending on the soil and the underlying parent rock. This was largely cleared for agriculture and settlement which has started a plagioclimax in most areas of Britain. Tropical Biome – Savannah Grassland Climate: * Wet and dry seasons * 500-1000mm of rain per year * Hot throughout the year * High pressure and strong trade winds in the dry season * Wet season dominated by the ITCZ * Fires may occur caused by heat and lightning Vegetation: Trees dominate over grasses where the wet season is longer – dense rainforest towards the equat or * Grasses may be up to 2m tall – long roots * Deciduous * Adaptations include fire resistant bark, water storage etc. Soil: * Deep red lateric soils * Influenced by climate * Silica is leached downwards in the wet season * Crust formed in the dry season Biodiversity: * Greater towards the equator * Acacia, Baobab, Umbrella Thorn, Elephant Grass * Great animal migrations occur meaning that biodiversity drops at certain times * 40% of the land in Tanzania has been designated as a National Park to help conserve biodiversity * African Elephant, Black Rhino, Zebra and Cheetah are endangered The Savanna grassland biome ClimateThe tropical wet and dry climate of Africa shows seasonal variation in wind direction, precipitation and temperature Variations occur with increasing latitude from the equator Precipitation varies: * Equatorial rainforest margins more than 1,000mm per year, rain season lasts 10-11months * Desert/semi-arid margins are less than 500mm per year, away from the equator the reliability of the rainfall decreases, only 1-2 months rainy season Temperature varies: * The equatorial rainforest margin temperature range is 22Â °C in the wet season and 28Â °C in the dry season * On the desert margins the temperature range from 18Â °C in the wet season to 34Â °C in the dry seasonDuring the dry season, the subtropical anticyclone moves over the desert margins, the subsiding air of the high pressure suppresses convection, giving rise to clear skies and high daytime temperatures The trade winds blow from the high pressure towards the ITCZ, moves towards the coast. The air has a low moisture content, known as harmatten In the wet season, the ITCZ migrates polewards, it brings rainfall because uplift and convection are fed by moist, unstable, tropical maritime air, the poles have a short rainy season so have low annual rainfall Ecological responses soil moisture budgets e. g. Northern Ghana Soil moisture recharge-July to early August precipitation bec omes greater than evapotranspiration, rainwater fills the empty pores in the soil, reaches field capacitySoil moisture surplus- August-September, at field capacity, soil is saturated, rainwater has difficulty infiltrating ground leads to surface runoff, leads to high river levels Soil moisture utilisation-October, evapotranspiration begins to exceed precipitation, more water evaporating and being transpired by plants than falling as rain Soil moisture deficit- December, when soil moisture is used up, water deficit, plants can only survive if drought resistant, period continues until precipitation becomes greater than evapotranspiration Northern Ghana characteristics: * lengthy period of moisture deficit * Short period of moisture surplus * Total annual potential evapotranspiration greater than total potential precipitationAdaptations by vegetation * Vegetation in wetter areas consist of tall coarse grasses, with many deciduous trees- Tree savanna * Shorter tussock grass becomes domi nant in desert margins, accompanied by drought-resistant trees e. g. acacia and baobab, known as grassland and shrub savannas * Trees are deciduous, have hard leathery leaves to reduce transpiration losses, other plants are microphyllous (small leaves) for the same reason * In the tree savanna, isolated trees have low umbrella shaped crowns that shade root areas and reduce soil moisture evaporation Xerophytic characteristics, adaptations to dry surroundings: * dense cell fluids hard waxy leaves Reduce water loss * thorns and protected stomata Two main types of trees: i). Acacia-has a crown structure, often flattened by trade winds, loses leaves in the dry season ii). Baobab-thick spongy trunk, long tap roots, baobab is pyrophytic, withstand fire due to insulating bark Grassland savanna- grasses are tussocky, enables them to retain some moisture shrub or scrub savanna- there are many acacia trees, thorn bushes and short tufted grasses, fewer leaves so retain more water, turn blades a way from sun to reduce water loss Impact of human activity Two main effects on the vegetation: i).Grass is burnt off, better growth of young grass next season for grazing, regular burning makes it difficult for young trees and bushes to become established, dominated by herbaceous plants and indigenous woody plants that can survive fire e. g. acacia and baobab ii). Woody plants, killed by cattle eating their foliage, thorny animal-repellent trees and shrubs such as acacia, therefore become numerous The tropical monsoon forest biome Climate * High temperatures throughout the year, small annual range(19Â °C-30Â °C) because of the location within the tropics * Annual precipitation is high * Winds blow in from the ocean with very moist air and heavy rainfall during May-October, the rest of the year the air is drierEcological responses Soil moisture budgets * Precipitation is much higher than potential evapotranspiration during the wet season * High rainfall totals result in saturation of the soil, some of the moisture can be utilised by vegetation * A soil moisture deficits occurs by January, deciduous trees lose their leaves in response to drought conditions * The period of moisture deficit is shorter then that experienced in the tropical savanna biome * The months of surplus during the wet monsoon season result in the leaching of bases and silica and very little humus is allowed to develop in the top layers Adaptations by vegetation and animals The canopy is not continuous, tallest trees are smaller, provide an incomplete cover * This means there is less competition for light, allowing greater development of vegetation at lower levels * Fewer species of trees, common species are sal, pyinkado and teak all of which are economically valuable * Trees do not possess buttress roots and they develop large round crowns * The bark is often thick, to protect them from the harsh climate of the dry season, leaves are thin * Deciduous trees shed their leaves in response to a lack of moisture, to reduce transpiration during the dry season, this allows the light to reach the forest floor, leads to the development of dense undergrowth Impact of human activity * Tropical monsoon forests are fragile ecosystems, following deforestation almost impossible for existing food webs to continue, all rophic levels are affected, results in massive decrease in natural vegetation * Removal of monsoon forests due to increasing population pressure * Deforestation due to agricultural land and fuel wood due to rapidly increasing population * Teak has been exploited for export to developed countries, many indigenous species are endangered Development issues in the three biomes Brazil has the greatest species diversity, a smaller proportion of its land is protected than in Tanzania, in Tanzania 39. 6% of the land is designated National Parkland Species diversity is of crucial importance because: * Plants photosynthesise * Trees act as a carbon sink * Some species purify wa ter, fixing nitrogen, recycling nutrients and waste * Insects pollinate cropsIn all three biomes the natural environments are threatened by population growth and economic development Ecosystem issues on a local scale Conservation-preservation of the natural environment Ecology-the study of the relationships between living things and their environment Sustainable development-The management of resources in such a way that the ability of the system to replace itself is greater than the level of exploitation In urban areas they contain a wide variety of habitats e. g. industrial sites, derelict land and parks- thus difficult to make generalisations about urban ecology- all these habitats contain different mixes of flora and faunaThis means there are opportunities for secondary succession, particularly where land becomes derelict. Urban niches Many urban habitats are specialised, within one site a number of different niches or microhabitats might be available for plants and animals to co lonise. e. g. bare tarmac, stone walls, Mosses taking root on high buildings Colonisation of wasteland Plant succession-the change on a community of species over time, is brought about by changes in the microenvironment due to e. g. supply of new species, competition between species and changes in habitat The types of plants that can initially colonise are influenced by: i). Slope- horizontal surfaces debris accumulates, eventually develops into soil ii).Moisture availability-gentle slopes, rainwater accumulates and steep slopes-faster runoffs iii). Aspect-south facing slopes are warmer and drier iv). Porosity-(ability to hold water), the greater porosity the quicker the colonisation v). Surface roughness-allowing plants to get a hold vi). Pollution levels-substances that are toxic to plants e. g. lead, contaminates the ground Succession-e. g. Industrial site Stage 1: Pioneers- * Mosses and lichens are the first plants to develop on bare surfaces * Able to exist in areas with little water, obtaining nutrients through photosynthesis * When the plants die they provide a thin mat of organic matter, produces a protosoil that other species can root into Stage 2: Oxford ragwort- Cracks in the surface provide sheltered places for seeds to germinate and retain moisture * Oxford ragwort, wind-blown seeds, has a long flowering season 180-190 days, enables it to produce millions of seeds * At this stage, succession is usually rapid Stage 3: Tall herbs- * As these plants die they produce a thicker and more nutrient-rich soil * Taller plants that are more demanding of good growth conditions can become established e. g. Willowherb Stage 4: Grassland- * As soil enrichment continues, the amount of grass in the vegetation increases * Japanese knotweed, grow up to 3m in height, their dense canopies shade out most species beneath them Stage 5: Scrub woodland- Processes of soil enrichment and competition continues, taller herbaceous plants replaced by shrubs and eventually trees * As herbaceous plants thicken it becomes difficult for these small-seeded plants to establish As plant succession develops, there are changes to the fauna: * Soil fauna-increase in number of earthworms as soil improves and increase in the number and diversity of the insect population * Sub-stratum variations-caused by differences in the nature of the surface being colonised Ecologies along route ways * Routeways are distinctive habitats because exotic species of plants and insects may be brought in by traffic, provide wildlife corridors for e. g. oxes * Railway lines- during days of steam trains there were frequent fires which burnt of tall species (allowing light through) encouraging light-demanding species to establish * Windborne seeds can be sucked along by trains and a lack of human interference encourages wildlife e. g. badgers * The nitrogen-rich exhaust fumes boost the growth of some wild flowers and increase the presence of insects and animals further up the food chain * C anals act like long ponds providing a habitat for a variety of aquatic plants e. g. ducks Introduction of new species Cities are centres for the establishment and spread of foreign species, species: * Europe-e. g. Sycamore * Japan-e. g. Japanese KnotweedSuch species can be introduced by windblown seeds, seeds carriers by animals and forms of transport e. g. trains Urban areas are attractive because of the variety of habitats, the constant creation of new habitats and the reduced level of competition Gardens and parks Are areas where the vegetation is managed: * Species are introduced from overseas and others are removed or controlled by mowing, weeding or the use of pesticides/herbicides * Sports fields reduce the diversity of plant species by maintaining grass pitches * Altruistic motives- to give a dull urban area some colour and improving the aesthetic value of the area * Improving the visual outlook-hiding eyesores (e. g. actories) encourage businesses or residents to move in * Schools produce a diverse environment for study purposes * Local businesses may want a pleasant site to attract customers * Local authorities provide the public with an arboretum * Birdwatchers wish for a diverse environment to attract new species * Act as noise and pollution inhibitors * Provide shade in hot urban environments * Reduce soil erosion on embankments Changes in the rural urban fringe * Although much of the land on the rural/urban fringe is a green belt area meaning that it’s protected from development, there will be increasing pressure to do so as plans for 50,000 houses over the next few years. The rural urban fringe is under pressure from development, In the UK are designated green belt, with regulations that strictly control new development * Farmers face problems from illegal encampments, trespassing and vandalism * Secondary succession may begin on unintended fields with the growth of weeds * Despite a lack of investment, land prices are often high, due to speculation of future development, derelict land has an advantage in gaining planning permission * Recent government policy is in favour of sustainable development of the rural-urban fringe and the recycling of derelict/degraded land e. g. planting of woodland * Country parks are relatively unmanaged and harbour more natural plant communities, providing potential breeding sites for bird species. e. g. skylark Ecological conservation areas Conservation areas are developed for: * Encouraging wildlife back into cities * Making cheap use of an otherwise derelict area Reducing maintenance costs in an area * Maintaining a diverse species base and reintroducing locally extinct species Such work includes: * Planting of trees, planting of native species, dredging of ponds and soil improvements * Group organisations behind such conservation include: The National Trust Different groups have different priorities, local authorities have planning needs and have to balance the desire to make use o f derelict land against the potential cost to local taxpayers E. g. conservation groups want to create environments where traditional species can establish and local people want a safe environment for leisure Dulwich Upper Wood conservation area This was once a wooded area and the site of Crystal Palace however now it has been turned in to an ecological conservation area which is open and attempt to accommodate everyone. * Is open at all times * Has a network of trails, some are suitable for wheelchairs Species in the wood * Trees e. g. Oak and ash, ground in the wood is deeply shaded, only a few shrubs e. g. Laurel and a few plants from the ancient woodland e. g. bluebell * Over 250 types of fungi e. g. mushrooms, they live on dead wood or leaf litter helping to break down these materials and return nutrients to the soil * Many mammals e. g. foxes and over 40 species of birds e. g. woodpeckers Why the site is interesting? Conservation of both abandoned Victorian gardens and ancient woodland * A number of preserved and re-created habitats e. g. wet areas and herb gardens * The site is both managed and allowed to grow wild in some areas, a range of different habitats * Plenty of wildlife, over 40 species of birds * Original habitats preserved, enabling native species of plants and animals to survive * A good example of how habitats can be preserved and created and still allow public access through a network of trails * The site has an educational value with a posted nature trail Ecosystem issues on a global scale Human activity, biodiversity and sustainability * World’s population continues to grow, increasing the stress upon resources and environmental systems e. g. ater, land * Population and growth and economic development resulted in spiralling demand for natural resources and reduction in natural ecosystems and biodiversity * 2005, Millennium Ecosystem Assessment- stated that humans have changed ecosystems extensively, resulting in a substantial los s of the diversity of life on Earth * 1/3 of plant species are threatened globally and that climate change could result in the extinction of up to 1 million of the world’s species by 2050 * United Nations and the World Wide Fund for Nature are working to educate people to protect ecosystems and to support sustainable development * 1997 Kyoto conference on the environment resulted in the most industrialised countries agreeing to cut their carbon dioxide emissions by 30% by 2010 * UK government created the UK biodiversity Action Plan in 1994, setting aims for the next 20 years: * Protecting the best sites for wildlife-10% of the UK designated Site of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI’s) * Targeting action on priority species and habitats-2007 UK diversity Partnership published list of 1,149 priority species and 65 habitats * Embedding consideration of biodiversity and ecosystem services in all sections of policy * Encouraging people to change their behaviour, to environm ental issues Management of fragile environments A fragile environment lacks resilience to a change in conditions, many ecosystems are vulnerable to change e. g. introduction of foreign species CASE STUDY: Central Amazon Conservation Complex (tropical rainforests) The destruction of the Amazon rainforest has been particularly harmful to the biodiversity there. To prevent this some places have been protected by law meaning that they are undisturbed.There are three separate reserves which are linked and is known as the Central Amazon Conservation Complex. The total size of these three areas is bigger than Switzerland. 1. Jau National Park 2,272,000 ha 2. Mamiraua Sustainable Development Reserve 260,000 ha 3. Amana Sustainable Development Reserve 2,230,000 ha This is a UNESCO world heritage site is the second largest protected area of tropical rainforest in the world. The area is sparsely populated and there are no transport links other than boats. There are no major projects such as hy droelectric dams and some incidences of hunting and poaching by outsiders for commercial gain This area has one of the most diverse flora and fauna in the world.These include: * 200+ species of mammals * 500+ species of birds e. g. parrots * 300+ species of fish * Reptiles and amphibians e. g. coral snake Some of these are endangered which means that the area requires extra protection. e. g. spider monkey and puma Management The management has three main functions: * To protect the land and to minimise the impact of human activity * To research, catalogue and protect biodiversity * To manage specific activities, such as tourism They have drawn up a zoning plan which shows how much activity has been going on in each area. 1. Primitive Zone – Minimal human intervention as this is land of great natural beauty 2.Extensive Use Zone – There has been a small amount of activity 3. Intensive Use Zone – Environment has been significantly altered due to human intervention 4. Special Use Zone – where services operate to monitor an protect the rainforest A management strategy was developed by local communities and with other representatives resulted in: * Hunting and logging for commercial gain is prohibited * Inhabitants receive environmental education and improved healthcare * Increased economic production from natural resources, ensure a sustainable future for those in the rainforest * Zoning and protection, resulted in an increase in the productivity of the forest and aquatic resourcesCASE STUDY: Serengeti National Park and Ngorongoro Conservation Area, Tanzania (savanna grasslands) * The parkland occupies 2,305,100 ha, known for herds of wildebeest, 1,300,000 * Endangered species, African elephant, perhaps only 2,000 left * More than 500 species of birds e. g. flamingo * Populated by the Masai Mara, who have an extensive system of land management which requires large areas for the grazing of cattle and Mara’s cultural code forbids th e eating of wild animals, so biodiversity is protected History * Today over 52,000 Masai Mara * 1980’s, economic situation improved, tourism increased which allowed the park authorities to rebuild the infrastructure and to re-establish anti-poaching units * 90,000 visitors a year, although tourism is managed sustainably-200,000 animals are still illegally killed by poachers each year Management Buffer zones called community Wildlife Management Areas * Local people are encouraged and have legal rights to make decisions regarding the management of wildlife, hoping to curb illegal poaching * 36% of the population live below the poverty line has resulted in ever increasing pressure on existing resources * A new threat to the natural grasslands is the invasion of the non-native Mexican prickly poppy, rapidly takes over an overgrazed land crowding out native species * Tanzania is committed to protecting 42,000km? of land, UK has 1/10 of the land protected The main aim is to preserv e the country’s rich natural heritage and to provide securing breeding grounds for its flora and fauna , safe from the conflicting interests of a growing human population The Sundarbans Reserved Forest, Bangladesh (tropical monsoon forest) Population pressure in Bangladesh is severe, large areas of the forest have been cleared to provide more space for agriculture and settlement e. g. 1000 inhabit every km? Threats A number of risks threaten the Sundarbans: * Climate change- sea levels are rising at 3mm a year, cause flooding of low lying delta land * Abstraction of water-40% reduction in flow leading to increased salinity of the land and water * Deforestation-e. g. in the Himalayas leading to greater volumes of silt being deposited by rivers * 3 million people live in small villages * Fishing camps are a major disturbance in the area, with some illegal hunting and trapping of species e. g. turtles * Water pollution e. g. Khulna aquatic wildlife badly affected * Natural disas ters e. g. 2007 a cyclone killed 3,000 people and most of the larger trees were uprooted Flora and faunaThe Sundarbans consists of a vast network of rivers, mudflats and islands which are vegetated by mangroves(salt tolerant trees), act as natural buffers against storm surges and protect the land from tropical cyclones which occur during the summer monsoon season Endangered predators in this eco-region e. g. Royal Bengal tiger estimated at 350 Management * There are seven conservation areas, including three wildlife sanctuaries * Under the wildlife act of 1974 it is illegal to cultivate the land within the conservation areas or to introduce domestic animals * There is not enough staff or structures in place to enforce the law * The threats to the area require more cross border cooperation with India as well as financial support * Plans must include a high degree of local community involvement to allow sustainable use of the forest